Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages

Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported.

Paradigm summaries

A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article.

  • Concurrent programming – have language constructs for concurrency, these may involve multi-threading, support for distributed computing, message passing, shared resources (including shared memory), or futures
    • Actor programming – concurrent computation with actors that make local decisions in response to the environment (capable of selfish or competitive behaviour)
  • Constraint programming – relations between variables are expressed as constraints (or constraint networks), directing allowable solutions (uses constraint satisfaction or simplex algorithm)
  • Dataflow programming – forced recalculation of formulas when data values change (e.g. spreadsheets)
  • Declarative programming – describes what computation should perform, without specifying detailed state changes c.f. imperative programming (functional and logic programming are major subgroups of declarative programming)
  • Distributed programming – have support for multiple autonomous computers that communicate via computer networks
  • Functional programming – uses evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data
  • Generic programming – uses algorithms written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated as needed for specific types provided as parameters
  • Imperative programming – explicit statements that change a program state
  • Logic programming – uses explicit mathematical logic for programming
  • Metaprogramming – writing programs that write or manipulate other programs (or themselves) as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime
    • Template metaprogramming – metaprogramming methods in which a compiler uses templates to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled
    • Reflective programming – metaprogramming methods in which a program modifies or extends itself
  • Object-oriented programming – uses data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions (objects) to design programs
    • Class-based – object-oriented programming in which inheritance is achieved by defining classes of objects, versus the objects themselves
    • Prototype-based – object-oriented programming that avoids classes and implements inheritance via cloning of instances
  • Pipeline programming – a simple syntax change to add syntax to nest function calls to language originally designed with none
  • Rule-based programming – a network of rules of thumb that comprise a knowledge base and can be used for expert systems and problem deduction & resolution
  • Visual programming – manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually (e.g. Simulink); also termed diagrammatic programming[1]

Language overview
List of multi-paradigm programming languages
Language
Paradigm count
Concurrent
Constraints
Dataflow
Declarative
Distributed
Functional
Metaprogramming
Generic
Imperative
Logic
Reflection
Object-oriented
Pipelines
Visual
Rule-based
 Other
Ada​[2]​[3]​[4]​[5]​[6]5 Yes​[a 1]———Yes——YesYes——Yes​[a 2]————
ALF2 —————Yes———Yes——————
AmigaE
2 ————————Yes——Yes​[a 2]————
APL3 —————Yes——Yes——————Array (multi-dimensional)
BETA
3 —————Yes——Yes——Yes​[a 2]————
C++7 (15) Yes​[7]​[8]​[9]Library​[10]Library​[11]​[12]Library​[13]​[14]Library​[15]​[16]YesYes​[17]Yes​[a 3]YesLibrary​[18]​[19]Library​[20]Yes​[a 2]Yes​[21]—Library​[22]Array (multi-dimensional; using STL)
C#6 (7) Yes—Library​[a 4]——Yes​[a 5]—YesYes—YesYes​[a 2]———Reactive​[a 6]
ChucK
3 Yes———————Yes——Yes​[a 2]————
Claire2 —————Yes—————Yes​[a 2]————
Clojure5 Yes​[23]​[24]——Yes—Yes​[25]Yes​[26]——Library​[27]——Yes​[28]Editor​[29]—Multiple dispatch,​[30] Agents​[31]
Common Lisp7 (14) Library​[32]Library​[33]Library​[34]Yes​[35]Library​[36]YesYesYes​[37]YesLibrary​[38]YesYes​[a 7]​[a 2]​[39]Library​[40]Library​[41]Library​[42]Multiple dispatch, meta-OOP system,​[43] Language is extensible via metaprogramming.
Curl5 —————Yes—Yes​[a 3]Yes—YesYes​[a 2]————
Curry4 YesYes———Yes———Yes——————
D (version 2.0)​[44]​[45]7 Yes​[a 8]————YesYes​[46]​[a 3]Yes​[a 3]Yes—YesYes​[a 2]————
Delphi3 ———————Yes​[a 3]Yes——Yes​[a 2]————
Dylan
3 —————Yes————YesYes​[a 2]————
E3 Yes———Yes——————Yes​[a 2]————
ECMAScript​[47]​[48] (ActionScript, E4X, JavaScript, JScript)4 (5) Partial​[a 9]​[a 10]——Library​[49]​[50]—Yes——Yes—YesYes​[a 11]Library​[51]​[52]Editor​[53]—Reactive,​[a 12]​[54] event driven​[a 13]​[a 14]
Erlang3 Yes——YesYesYes——————Yes———
Elixir4 Yes———YesYesYes—————Yes———
Elm6 Yes—YesYes—Yes (pure)​[a 15]—Yes————Yes——Reactive
F#7 (8) Yes​[a 8]—Library​[a 4]Yes—Yes—YesYes—YesYes​[a 2]———Reactive​[a 6]
Fortran4 (5) Yes————Yes​[a 15]—Yes​[a 16]———Yes​[a 2]———Array (multi-dimensional)
Go4 Yes———————Yes—Yes—Yes———
Haskell8 (15) YesLibrary​[55]Library​[56]YesLibrary​[57]Yes (lazy) (pure)​[a 15]Yes​[58]YesYesLibrary​[59]—Partial​[a 17]YesYesLibrary​[60]Literate, reactive, dependent types (partial)
Io4 Yes​[a 8]————Yes——Yes——Yes​[a 11]————
J
3 —————Yes——Yes——Yes​[a 2]————
Java6 YesLibrary​[61]Library​[62]——Yes—YesYes—YesYes​[a 2]————
Julia9 (17) YesLibrary​[63]Library​[64]​[65]Library​[66]YesYes (eager)YesYesYesLibrary​[67]YesYes​[a 18]Yes—Library​[68]​[69]Multiple dispatch,
Array (multi-dimensional); optionally lazy​[70] and reactive (with libraries)
Kotlin8 Yes————YesYesYesYes—YesYesYes———
LabVIEW4 Yes—Yes————————Yes—Yes——
Lava2 ———————————Yes​[a 2]—Yes——
LispWorks (version 6.0 with support for symmetric multi-processing, rules, logic (Prolog), CORBA)9 Yes———YesYesYes—YesYesYesYes​[a 2]——Yes—
Lua
3 —————Yes——Yes——Yes​[a 11]————
MATLAB6 (10) Toolbox​[71]Toolbox​[72]Yes​[73]—Toolbox​[74]—Yes​[75]Yes​[76]——Yes​[77]Yes​[78]—Yes​[79]—Array (multi-dimensional)
Nemerle7 Yes————YesYesYesYes—YesYes​[a 2]————
Object Pascal4 Yes————Yes——Yes——Yes​[a 2]————
OCaml4 —————Yes—YesYes——Yes​[a 2]————
Oz11 YesYesYesYesYesYes——YesYes—Yes​[a 2]Yes—Yes—
Perl
8 (9) Yes​[80]—Yes​[81]——YesYes—Yes—Yes​[a 2]Yes​[a 2]Yes———
PHP​[82]​[83]​[84]4 —————Yes——Yes—YesYes​[a 2]————
Poplog3 —————Yes——YesYes——————
Prograph3 ——Yes————————Yes​[a 2]—Yes——
Python5 (10) Library​[85]​[86] Library​[87] — — Library​[88] Yes Yes​[89]​[90] Yes​[91]​[92]YesLibrary​[93]YesYes​[a 2] —Editor​[94]—Structured
R4 (6) Library​[95]———Library​[96]Yes——Yes—YesYesYes​[97]——Array (multi-dimensional)
Racket10 Yes​[98]Yes​[99]Yes​[100]—Yes​[101]YesYes—YesYesYesYes———Lazy​[102]
Raku10 Yes​[103]Library​[104]Yes​[105]—Library​[106]YesYes​[107]Yes​[108]Yes—Yes​[109]Yes​[110]Yes——Multiple dispatch, lazy lists, reactive.
ROOP3 ————————YesYes————Yes—
Ruby5 —————YesYes—Yes—YesYes​[a 2]————
Rust (version 1.0.0-alpha)6 Yes​[a 8]————YesYes​[111]​[112]Yes​[113]Yes——Yes———Linear, affline, and ownership types
Sather
2 —————Yes—————Yes​[a 2]————
Scala​[114]​[115]9 Yes​[a 8]—Yes​[a 19]Yes—YesYesYesYes—YesYes​[a 2]————
Simula
2 ————————Yes——Yes​[a 2]————
SISAL3 Yes—Yes——Yes——————————
Spreadsheets2 —————Yes———————Yes——
Swift7 Yes————YesYesYesYes—YesYes​[a 2]———Block-structured
Tcl with Snit extension
3 —————Yes​[116]——Yes——Yes​[a 11]​[117]————
Visual Basic .NET6 (7) Yes—Library​[a 4]——Yes—YesYes—YesYes​[a 2]———Reactive​[a 6]
Windows PowerShell6 —————Yes—YesYes—YesYes​[a 2]Yes———
Wolfram Language & Mathematica13​[118] (14) YesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYesYes​[119]—YesKnowledge Based

See also

Notes
  1. rendezvous and monitor-like based
  2. class-based
  3. template metaprogramming
  4. using TPL Dataflow
  5. only lambda support (lazy functional programming)
  6. using Reactive Extensions (Rx)
  7. multiple dispatch, method combinations
  8. actor programming
  9. promises, native extensions
  10. using Node.js' cluster module or child_process.fork method, web workers in the browser, etc.
  11. Prototype-based
  12. using Reactive Extensions (RxJS)
  13. in Node.js via their events module
  14. in browsers via their native EventTarget API
  15. purely functional
  16. parameterized classes
  17. immutable
  18. multiple dispatch, not traditional single
  19. Akka Archived 2013-01-19 at the Wayback Machine

Citations
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  5. Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 6: Subprograms
  6. Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, 3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions
  7. Thread support
  8. Atomics support
  9. Memory model
  10. Gecode
  11. SystemC
  12. Boost.Iostreams
  13. Boolinq
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  15. OpenMPI
  16. Boost.MPI
  17. Boost.MPL
  18. LC++
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  20. Reflect Library
  21. N3534
  22. Boost.Spirit
  23. Clojure - Concurrent Programming
  24. Clojure - core.async
  25. Clojure - Functional Programming
  26. Clojure - Macros
  27. Clojure - core.logic
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  30. Multimethods and Hierarchies
  31. Agents and Asynchronous Actions
  32. many concurrency paradigms implemented as language extensions
  33. constraint programming inside CL through extensions
  34. dataflow extension
  35. by creating DSLs using the built-in metaprogramming; also see note on functional, constraint and logic paradigms, which are part of declarative
  36. MPI, etc via language extensions
  37. template metaprogramming using macros (see C++)
  38. Prolog implemented as a language extension
  39. Common Lisp Object System see Wikipedia article on CLOS, the Common Lisp Object System.
  40. implemented by the user via a short macro, example of implementation
  41. - Visual programming tool based on Common Lisp
  42. rule-based programming extension
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  81. Higher Order Perl
  82. PHP Manual, Chapter 17. Functions
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  98. Racket Guide: Concurrency and Synchronization
  99. The Rosette Guide
  100. FrTime: A Language for Reactive Programs
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  102. Lazy Racket
  103. Channels and other mechanisms
  104. "Problem Solver module".
  105. Feed operator
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References
  • Jim Coplien, Multiparadigm Design for C++, Addison-Wesley Professional, 1998.
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